Forced circumcision

Forced circumcision is the circumcision of men against their will. In a biblical context, the term is used especially in relation to Paul the Apostle and his polemics against the circumcision controversy in early Christianity. Forced circumcisions have occurred in a wide range of situations, most notably in the compulsory conversion of non-Muslims to Islam and the forced circumcision of Teso, Turkana and Luo men in Kenya, as well as the abduction of South African teenage boys to so-called circumcision schools ("bush schools"). In South Africa, custom allows uncircumcised Xhosa-speaking men past the age of circumcision (i.e., 25 years or older) to be overpowered by other men and forcibly circumcised.

Quotes

 * The Mahomniedans are encouraged and exhorted to destroy all the emblems of idolatry they may see in Sinde. The degraded and unfortunate follower of Brahma, is denied the free exercise of his religion ; the tom-tom is seldom heard, being only beat when permission is granted ; and although there are a few temples without images at Hyderabad, the sound of music never echoes from their walls. It is in the power of any "true believers, by declaring that a Hindoo has repeated a verse from the Koran, or the words Mahommed the Prophet, to procure his immediate circumcision. This is the most common, and, by the persecuted class themselves, considered the most cruel of all their calamities ; while, as it is resorted to on the slightest pretence, and always performed with a mockery of its being for the eternal happiness of the sufferer, mental agony is made to add its bitterness to bodily infliction.
 * James Burnes (surgeon), Narrative of a visit to the court of Sinde. Narrative of a visit to the court of Sinde   (also quoted in     Jain, M. (2010). Parallel pathways: Essays on Hindu-Muslim relations, 1707-1857.)


 * To begin the so much desired work of the conversion of the Hindoos and to seize on the Brahmins, ... and make them examples to the other inferior castes, in becoming Mussulmans, by suffering circumcision and being compelled to eat beef: accordingly many Brahmins were seized in or about the month of July 1788...
 * Frenz M. From contact to conquest contact 2003, in    Jain, M. (2010). Parallel pathways: Essays on Hindu-Muslim relations, 1707-1857. 66


 * Thus all infidels, apostates and polytheists once again became Musulman. No person was left without circumcision or reciting the kelima. Infidels in villages and rural areas were also converted in the same manner. Only a very small group did not convert. Their fathers and forefathers had fled to Nagarkot during the reign of Sultan Sikandar, the Iconoclast. Some of them had settled in Kishtwar and others had fled to Jammu. As they had not converted to Islam, their descendants were spared the compulsion of conversion and were left in whatever condition they were
 * Muḥammad, A. K., & Pandit, K. N. (2009). A Muslim missionary in mediaeval Kashmir: Being the English translation of Tohfatu'l-ahbab. New Delhi: Voice of India.


 * I heard the following story from my father. There was an aristocrat, much respected (in his community). He enjoyed great credibility with the people. He was a middle class trader but people gave him great respect. His name was Ladar Mantji (Rudraman Ji?). He was summoned for circumcision, but he made humble supplication and feigned poverty. He requested that his head be tonsured in public, and a dependable witness be sent along with him to his house to verify that he had undergone circumcision. I did not accept his statement that he was a destitute. I opened his belt with my own hands and down came on the floor five golden coins concealed in his loincloth. I picked up the coins and asked him how these had come into his possession? He said he had brought these as a gift to be presented to me so that I allowed him to get circumcised in his own home. I tied the coins in one corner of his belt and made him sit with others in a special room to be called on his turn for circumcision.
 * Muḥammad, A. K., & Pandit, K. N. (2009). A Muslim missionary in mediaeval Kashmir: Being the English translation of Tohfatu'l-ahbab. New Delhi: Voice of India. 240


 * Some of the prominent personalities of this land, who wielded power and authority, had reservations about getting circumcised together with common people. They requested that barbers and circumcision operators be brought to their homes to get hem circumcisioned. They would stay in their homes for some days (to recover). Their request was not granted (by Araki). It was feared that barbers and operators could be bribed and that they would avoid circumcision on one pretext or the other. Thus aristocrats were also subjected to circumcision along with commoners and none of their arguments was accepted. The intention was that religion, community and Islamic law (shariat) should prosper, leaving no scope for any kind of corruption.
 * Muḥammad, A. K., & Pandit, K. N. (2009). A Muslim missionary in mediaeval Kashmir: Being the English translation of Tohfatu'l-ahbab. New Delhi: Voice of India. 239-40


 * According to Kativa Daiya, during the 1947 partition of India "[f]orced circumcision, shaving facial and head hair (for Sikh men), and shaving off the Hindu Brahmin's traditional, short, plaited hair (on an otherwise bald head) were routine Muslim conversion tactics for men and boys."
 * Daiya, Violent Belongings, pp. 69-70. Kativa Daiya, Violent Belongings: Partition, Gender, and National Culture in Postcolonial India (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2008).


 * Mahomed Kasim levelled the temple and its walls with the ground and circumcised the brahmins. The infidels highly resented this treatment, by invectives against him and the true faith. On which Mahomed Kasim caused every brahmin, from the age of seventeen and upwards, to be put to death; the young women and children of both sexes were retained in bondage and the old women being released, were permitted to go whithersoever they chose...
 * Tarikh-i-Firishta, translated into English by John Briggs under the title History of the Rise of the Mahomedan Power in India, 4 Volumes, New Delhi Reprint, 1981. p. 234-238, in Goel S. R. & Shourie Arun (1991). Hindu temples what happened to them. vol. 2

During the reign of Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan

 * "Your two letters, with the enclosed memorandums of the Naimar (or Nair) captives, have been received. You did right in ordering a hundred and thirty-five of them to be circumcised, and in putting eleven of the youngest of these into the Usud Ilhye band (or class) and the remaining ninety-four into the Ahmedy Troop, consigning the whole, at the same time, to the charge of the Kilaaddar of Nugr…"
 * In a letter dated 8th Eezidy (February 13, 1790) addressed to Budruz Zuman Khan. (Selected Letters of Tipoo Sultan by Kirkpatrick)., also in C. NANDAGOPAL MENON, TIPU'S OWN TESTIMONY, 1990. in Tipu Sultan: Villain or hero? : an anthology. (1993).


 * Tipu Sultan is probably the Muhammadan monarch who most systematically engaged in the work of forcible conversion.... early in 1789 Tipu Sultan prepared to enforce his proclamation  (for conversion of Hindus) with an army of more than twenty thousand men.... Thousands of Hindus were accordingly circumcised and made to eat beef... most of the Brahmans and Nayars who had been forcibly converted subsequently disowned their new religion.
 * T.W. Arnold, Preaching of Islam. p. 261 ff.


 * 'In consequence, the Hindus of Malabar had to suffer the most severe enormities the world had ever known in history' ... "When the second-in-line of Zamorins, Eralppad, refused to cooperate with Tipu Sultan in his military operations against Travancore because of Tipu's crude methods of forcible circumcision and conversion of Hindus to Islam, the enraged Tipu Sultan took a solemn oath to circumcise and convert the Zamorin and his chieftains and Hindu soldiers to Islamic faith."
 * K.V. Krishna Iyer, in his famous book, Zamorins of Calicut, quoted  in : LATE P.C.N. RAJA,  RELIGIOUS INTOLERANCE OF TIPU SULTAN (This is the English translation of the Malayalam article by P.C.N. Raja first published in Kesari Annual of 1964. The late Raja was a senior member of the Zamorin Royal Family.) in : Tipu Sultan - Villain or Hero (1993)


 * Tipu's proclamation created universal resentment and the whole country rose in rebellion. Fearing forcible conversion about 30,000 Brahmins alone fled to Travancore. The Kottayam and Kadattanand Rajas sought the English East India Company's protection. Calicut was attacked in November, 1788. Tipu's officers laid hands on the Karanavappad of Manjeri. The Nairs of Calicut and South Malabar headed by Ravi Varma and other princes of the Padinjare Kovilakam turned in despair on their oppressors. Tipu set 6,000 troops under M. Lally to raise the siege, but Ravi Varma could not be driven out of the field. Earlier, in 1789, Tipu himself came down to Malabar via the Tamarasseri Ghat to enforce his proclamation at the point of his sword. General orders were issued to his army that 'every being in the district without distinction should be burned, that they should be traced to their lurking places, and that all means of truth and falsehood, force or fraud should be employed to effect their universal conversion'. The Kadattanad Raja's fortified palace at Kuttipuram was surrounded and 2,000 Nairs, forced to surrender after a resistance of several days, were circumcised and regaled with beef. Several. Rajas and rich land owners fled to Travancore where the Dharma Raja rendered them all help to rehabilitate themselves in their new surroundings. The poor Nairs, however, retreated into the jungles and were relentlessly pursued by Mysorean troops. From their jungle homes the Nairs could engage themselves in a kind of guerrilla warfare against the enemy forces. Hence Tipu organised a regular and systematic Nair hunt with the help of his soldiers. He then proceeded to Cannanore and after celebrating the marriage of his son with the daughter of the Ali Raja, marched along the coast of Chowghat to overawe the native population by a show of his power. From there he retired to Coimbatore after making arrangements for the administrative reorganisation of the province and leaving a permanent army of occupation to frighten the population into passive submission."
 * Kerala District Gazetteer, quoted in IN THE HIGH COURT OF JUDICATURE AT BOMBAY Writ Petition No. 5435 of 1989 in : Tipu Sultan - Villain or Hero (1993)


 * It was at Kuttippuram, the head-quarters of the Kadattanad family, that this force surrounded 2,000 Nayars with their families in an old fort which they  defended for several days. At last finding it untenable they submitted to Tippu’s  terms which were “a voluntary  profession of the Muhammadan faith, or a forcible  conversion with deportation from their native land. The unhappy captives gave a  forced assent, and on the next day the rite of circumcision was performed on all the  males, every individual of both sexes being compelled to close the ceremony by  eating beef.”
 * Malabar Manual by William Logan p. 451. also in part quoted in  Ravi Varma, " Tipu Sultan: As Known In Kerala" in Tipu Sultan: Villain or hero? : an anthology. (1993).


 * The reversion of Mangalore to the possession of Tipu was signalized by the forcible circumcision of many thousands of Indian Christians and their deportation to Seringapatam. A revolt in Coorg next year led to the same treatment of the greater part of the inhabitants the occasion being marked by Tipu's assumption of the tide of Badshah. ... A simultaneous rebellion occurred now in Coorg and Malabar, and the Sultan, passing through Coorg to quiet it, entered Malabar. Large parties of the Nairs were surrounded and offered the alternative of death or circumcision. ... Over 8,000 temples were also desecrated, their roofs of gold, silver and copper and the treasures buried under the idols amounting to many lakhs, being treated as royal plunder....His orders were, that 'every being in the district, without distinction, should be honoured with Islam; that the houses of such as fled to avoid that honour should be burned; that they should be traced to their lurking places, and that all means of truth and falsehood, fraud or force, should be employed' to effect their universal conversion. The following is a translation of an inscription on the stone found at Seringapatam, which was to have been set up in a conspicuous place in the fort:"Oh Almighty God! dispose the whole body of infidels! Scatter their tribe, cause their feet to stagger! Overthrow their councils, change their state, destroy their very root! Cause death to be near them, cut off from them the means of sustenance! Shorten their days! Be their bodies the constant object of their cares (i.e. infest them with diseases), deprive their eyes of sight, make black their faces (i.e. bring shame)."
 * Mysore Gazetteer, quoted in IN THE HIGH COURT OF JUDICATURE AT BOMBAY Writ Petition No. 5435 of 1989 in : Tipu Sultan - Villain or Hero (1993)


 * Tipu imprisoned and forcibly converted more than a lakh Hindus and over 70,000 Christians in the Malabar region (they were forcibly circumcised and made to eat beef). Although these conversions were unethical and disgraceful, they served Tipu’s purpose. Once all these people had been cut off from their original faith, they were left with no option but to accept the very faith to which their ravager belonged, and they began to educate their children in Islam. They were later enlisted in the army and received good positions. Most of them morphed into religious zealots, and enhanced the ranks of the Faithful in Tipu’s kingdom. Tipu’s zeal for conversion was not limited only to the Malabar region. He had spread it all the way up to Coimbatore.
 * Life of Tipu Sultan published by the Pakistan Administrative Staff College, Lahore in 1964: Life of Tipu Sultan—Pakistan Administrative Staff College, Lahore, translated by Bernard Wycliffe. In:    S. Balakrishna, Seventy years of secularism. 2018.


 * "Kozhikode was then a centre of Brahmins. There were around 7000 Namboodiri houses of which more than 2000 houses were destroyed by Tipu Sultan in Kozhikode alone. Sultan did not spare even children and women. Menfolk escaped to forests and neighbouring principalities. Mappilas increased many fold (due to forcible conversion).... "During the military regime of Tipu Sultan, Hindus were forcibly circumcised and converted to Muhammadan faith. As a result the number of Nairs and Brahmins declined substantially."
 * Elankulam Kunjan Pillai quoted in V.M. KORATH: THE SWORD OF TIPU SULTAN in Goel S.R. (Ed.)  Tipu Sultan: Villain or hero? : an anthology. (1993).


 * Muhammadans greatly increased in number. Hindus were forcibly circumcised in thousands. As a result of Tipu's atrocities, strength of Nairs and Chamars (Scheduled Castes) significantly diminished in number. Namboodiris also substantially decreased in number.
 * Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai in the Mathrubhoomi Weekly of December 25, 1955, in : LATE P.C.N. RAJA, RELIGIOUS INTOLERANCE OF TIPU SULTAN (This is the English translation of the Malayalam article by P.C.N. Raja first published in Kesari Annual of 1964. The late Raja was a senior member of the Zamorin Royal Family.), in : in Goel S.R. (Ed.)  Tipu Sultan: Villain or hero? : an anthology. (1993).


 * "During Malayalam Era 965 corresponding to 1789-90, Tipu Sultan crossed over to Malabar with an army of uncivilised barbarians. With a sort of fanatical love for Islamic faith, he destroyed many Hindu temples and Christian churches which were the custodians of precious wealth and religious traditions. Besides, Tipu Sultan abducted hundreds of people and forcibly circumcised and converted them to Islam - an act which was considered by them as more than death."
 * Govinda Pillai in his famous book, History of Literature;, quoted in : LATE P.C.N. RAJA,  RELIGIOUS INTOLERANCE OF TIPU SULTAN (This is the English translation of the Malayalam article by P.C.N. Raja first published in Kesari Annual of 1964. The late Raja was a senior member of the Zamorin Royal Family.) in :   Tipu Sultan: Villain or hero? : an anthology. (1993).


 * But it was not only the Brahmans, who were thus put in a state of terror of forcible conversion, for, in this same month, a Raja of the Kshatriya family of  Parappanad, also "Tichera Terupar (Trichera Thiruppad), a principal Nayar of Nelemboor (Nilamboor)” and many other  persons, who had been carried off to Coimbatore, were circumcised and forced to  eat beef. The Nayars in desperation, under those  circumstances, rose on their oppressors in the  south, and the Coorgs too joined in.
 * p. 449. also in Malabar Manual by William Logan (Printed and published by Charitram Publications under the editorship of Dr. C.K, Kareem, Trivandrum). Quoted in Ravi Varma, " TIPU SULTAN: AS KNOWN IN KERALA" in Tipu Sultan: Villain or hero? : an anthology. (1993). Also quoted in Ravi Varma, " Tipu Sultan: As Known In Kerala"  in Tipu Sultan: Villain or hero? : an anthology. (1993).


 * Cromwell Massey, who kept a secret diary during his captivity, wrote: "I lost with the foreskin of my yard all those benefits of a Christian and Englishman which were and ever shall be my greatest glory."
 * Colley, Captives, p. 288. Linda Colley, Captives: The Story of Britain's Pursuit of Empire and How Its Soldiers and Sailors Were Held Captive by the Dream of Global Supremacy, 1600-1850 (New York: Pantheon, 2002).